An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase used to represent the full form. Abbreviations are commonly used to save space and avoid repetition in writing.
Example
Prof. Smith, who’s an expert in AI, won’t be able to present his findings at the IEEE conference in Nov. 2023 because he’ll be visiting the UK to collaborate with researchers at the Univ. of Cambridge.
In this example:
- Prof. is an abbreviation for Professor.
- who’s is a contraction of “who is.”
- AI is an initialism for Artificial Intelligence.
- won’t is a contraction of “will not.”
- IEEE is an initialism for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
- Nov. is an abbreviation for November.
- UK is an initialism for United Kingdom.
- Univ. is an abbreviation for University.
There are several types of abbreviations, including:
Contractions
Contractions are shortened forms of words or phrases that are created by omitting letters and replacing them with an apostrophe. Contractions are primarily employed to streamline frequently used combinations of pronouns and verbs.
| Contraction | Pronoun/Verb Combination | Example |
| I’m | I am | I’m going to the store later today. |
| you’re | you are | You’re the best friend I could ever ask for. |
| he’s | he is | He’s been working on that project for weeks. |
| she’s | she is | She’s always ready to lend a helping hand. |
| it’s | it is | It’s a beautiful day for a picnic. |
| we’re | we are | We’re planning a surprise party for her birthday. |
| they’re | they are | They’re going to be so excited when they hear the news. |
| I’ve | I have | I’ve been meaning to call you for days. |
| you’ve | you have | You’ve always been there for me when I needed you. |
| they’ve | they have | They’ve just returned from their vacation in Europe. |
While contractions are useful for simplifying common pronoun/verb combinations in informal writing and speech, they are deemed inappropriate for academic writing, where it is advisable to use the complete words instead.
Acronyms
Acronyms are typically created by combining the initial letter or letters of each word in a phrase. When pronounced, some acronyms sound like words (“NASA”), while others are read as individual letters (“FBI”).
| Acronym | Full Term |
| NASA | National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
| SCUBA | Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus |
| LASER | Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation |
| RADAR | Radio Detection and Ranging |
| AIDS | Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome |
To form the plural of an acronym, simply add a lowercase “s” to the end without using an apostrophe.
For example:
- The company has several VPs (Vice Presidents).
- Many NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are working to address social issues.
- The conference attracted a large number of CEOs (Chief Executive Officers).
Introducing acronyms
When using an acronym for the first time in a text, introduce it by writing out the full term followed by the acronym in parentheses. After the initial introduction, you can use the acronym consistently throughout the rest of the document. However, only capitalize the full term if it is a proper noun, such as the name of an organization.
- The World Health Organization (WHO) has been at the forefront of global health initiatives. The WHO works closely with governments and other partners to promote health and well-being worldwide.
- The company conducted a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis to assess its current market position. The SWOT analysis revealed several areas for improvement and potential growth.
Introduce an acronym only if you plan to use it at least three or four times in the document. If the acronym appears only once or twice, it is better to write out the full term to avoid confusion. Alternatively, if you use numerous acronyms throughout the document, you can include a list of abbreviations for easy reference.
Some acronyms are so widely recognized that they do not require an introduction. Examples of such acronyms include:
| Category | Acronyms |
| International Organizations | UN (United Nations), EU (European Union), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), WHO (World Health Organization), IMF (International Monetary Fund) |
| Countries | USA (United States of America), UK (United Kingdom), UAE (United Arab Emirates), USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) |
| Business and Economics | CEO (Chief Executive Officer), CFO (Chief Financial Officer), GDP (Gross Domestic Product), IPO (Initial Public Offering), ROI (Return on Investment) |
| Technology | IT (Information Technology), AI (Artificial Intelligence), IoT (Internet of Things), VR (Virtual Reality), USB (Universal Serial Bus) |
| Education | GPA (Grade Point Average), PhD (Doctor of Philosophy), MBA (Master of Business Administration), SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test), STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) |
| Science and Medicine | DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) |
| Miscellaneous | AM/PM (Ante Meridiem/Post Meridiem), AD/BC (Anno Domini/Before Christ), FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions), ASAP (As Soon As Possible), RSVP (Répondez S’il Vous Plaît) |
Latin abbreviations
Latin abbreviations are commonly used in academic writing, particularly in citations and references.
| Abbreviation | Meaning | Usage | Example |
| e.g. | exempli gratia (for example) | Used to introduce one or more examples | The company offers various services, e.g., web design, content creation, and social media management. |
| i.e. | id est (that is) | Used to clarify or rephrase a statement | The project requires a substantial investment, i.e., over $1 million. |
| et al. | et alia (and others) | Used when referring to a work with multiple authors | The study (Johnson et al., 2020) found that… |
| etc. | et cetera (and so forth) | Used to indicate that a list continues in a similar manner | The store sells various electronics, such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, etc. |
| vs. | versus | Used to indicate opposition or contrast | The debate focused on the merits of renewable energy vs. fossil fuels. |
Avoid mixing up “e.g.” and “i.e.” as they serve different purposes. To ensure clarity, it’s generally recommended to refrain from using these abbreviations in the main text, particularly in US English. Instead, place them within parentheses and follow them with a comma, or opt for writing out the full words.
Example
| Incorrect Usage | Correct Usage (with abbreviation) | Correct Usage (with full words) |
| The company offers various services, e.g. web design, content creation, and social media management. | The company offers various services (e.g., web design, content creation, and social media management). | The company offers various services, for example, web design, content creation, and social media management. |
| The project requires a substantial investment, i.e. over $1 million. | The project requires a substantial investment (i.e., over $1 million). | The project requires a substantial investment, that is, over $1 million. |
Punctuating abbreviations
Abbreviations should be followed by a period, unless the abbreviation ends with the same letter as the word it represents. Some style guides, such as APA, have specific rules for punctuating abbreviations.
For example, in APA style, abbreviations that are used as nouns should be written out the first time they are used, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Subsequent uses of the abbreviation do not need to be written out.
When using Latin abbreviations, always include periods. However, do not use periods with contractions or acronyms. For other abbreviations, the use of periods varies between US and UK English, as illustrated below:
| Abbreviation | US English | UK English |
| et cetera | etc. | etc |
| exempli gratia | e.g., | eg |
Abbreviations in legal texts
In legal writing, abbreviations are commonly used to refer to legal terms and concepts. It is important to use them consistently and to define them the first time they are used. Many legal abbreviations are specific to a particular area of law or jurisdiction, so it is important to ensure that the reader understands what the abbreviation refers to.
Abbreviations in APA
The American Psychological Association (APA) has specific guidelines for using abbreviations in academic writing.
Measurements
In APA style, statistical terms (e.g., SD for standard deviation and M for mean) and units of measurement (e.g., kg for kilograms and min for minutes) should only be abbreviated when accompanied by numeric values. When these terms appear without numbers, they should be written out in full.
For example:
- The mean weight of the participants was 75 kg.
- The experiment lasted for 30 min.
- The standard deviation was quite large, indicating a wide spread in the data.
- The duration of the task was measured in minutes.
Punctuation
When using abbreviations in APA style, follow these punctuation guidelines:
Use periods after abbreviations that end a sentence, but not when they appear within parentheses at the end of a sentence.
- Example: The study was conducted in Washington, D.C. The participants were recruited from three cities (e.g., New York, Chicago, Los Angeles).
Do not use periods with acronyms, which are abbreviations formed from the initial letters of a term and pronounced as a word.
- Example: The NASA mission was a success. The UNICEF report highlighted the importance of education.
Use lowercase letters and periods for abbreviations related to time, such as “a.m.” (ante meridiem) and “p.m.” (post meridiem).
- Example: The meeting was scheduled for 10:30 a.m. but was postponed to 3:15 p.m.